Takeaways From the COVID-19 Epidemic Progression and Combating Strategies in Southeast Asia
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.54987/jobimb.v12i2.1011Keywords:
COVID-19, Southeast Asia, SARS-CoV-2, Prevention strategies, Government policiesAbstract
Southeast Asia grappled with an early wave of COVID-19 cases, witnessing a spike in 2021 and early 2022 before vaccination efforts led to a decline. Governments in the region adopted diverse strategies, including lockdowns and public health measures, tailored to each country's cultural and socioeconomic landscape. This article delves into the COVID-19 outbreak across the 11 member countries, encompassing all ASEAN nations and Timor-Leste. It highlights the region's progression from low infection rates in 2020 to heightened mortality in 2021, followed by a drop in cases as vaccination coverage increased. Despite shared challenges, disparities in culture, wealth, and political context influenced the implementation and effectiveness of containment measures.
References
Khalifa SAM, Mohamed BS, Elashal MH, Du M, Guo Z, Zhao C, et al. Comprehensive overview on multiple strategies fighting covid-19. Int J Environ Res Public Health. 2020;17(16):1-13.
Contini C, Nuzzo MD, Barp N, Bonazza A, de Giorgio R, Tognon M, et al. The novel zoonotic COVID-19 pandemic: An expected global health concern. J Infect Dev Ctries. 2020;14(3):254-64.
Letko M, Marzi A, Munster V. Functional assessment of cell entry and receptor usage for SARS-CoV-2 and other lineage B betacoronaviruses. Nat Microbiol [Internet]. 2020 Apr [cited 2021 Sep 15];5(4):562-9. Available from: https://www.nature.com/articles/s41564-020-0688-y
Lu R, Zhao X, Li J, Niu P, Yang B, Wu H, et al. Genomic characterisation and epidemiology of 2019 novel coronavirus: implications for virus origins and receptor binding. The lancet. 2020;395(10224):565-74.
Worldometer. Coronavirus Graphs: Worldwide Cases and Deaths - Worldometer [Internet]. 2023 [cited 2023 Apr 8]. Available from: https://www.worldometers.info/coronavirus/worldwide-graphs/
Fauzi MA, Paiman N. COVID-19 pandemic in Southeast Asia: intervention and mitigation efforts. Asian Educ Dev Stud. 2021;10(2):176-84.
Ren X, Wang L, Cowling BJ, Zeng L, Geng M, Wu P, et al. Systematic Review:National Notifiable Infectious Disease Surveillance System in China. Online J Public Health Inform. 2019;11(1):3-5.
WHO. Weekly epidemiological update on COVID-19 - 21 December 2022 [Internet]. 2022 [cited 2022 Dec 28]. Available from: https://www.who.int/publications/m/item/covid-19-weekly-epidemiological-update---21-december-2022
Worldometer. COVID Live - Coronavirus Statistics - Worldometer [Internet]. 2022 [cited 2022 Jan 2]. Available from: https://www.worldometers.info/coronavirus/
Boughton D, Goeb J, Lambrecht I, Headey D, Takeshima H, Mahrt K, et al. Impacts of COVID-19 on agricultural production and food systems in late transforming Southeast Asia: The case of Myanmar. Agric Syst [Internet]. 2021;188(December 2020):103026. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agsy.2020.103026
Hashim JH, Adman MA, Hashim Z, Mohd Radi MF, Kwan SC. COVID-19 Epidemic in Malaysia: Epidemic Progression, Challenges, and Response. Front Public Health [Internet]. 2021 [cited 2021 Oct 3];9:247. Available from: https://www.frontiersin.org/article/10.3389/fpubh.2021.560592
Anttiroiko AV. Successful government responses to the pandemic: Contextualizing national and urban responses to the COVID-19 outbreak in east and west. Int J E-Plan Res. 2021;10(2):1-17.
Sohn AH, Phanuphak N, Baral S, Kamarulzaman A. Know your epidemic, know your response: understanding and responding to the heterogeneity of the COVID-19 epidemics across Southeast Asia. J Int AIDS Soc. 2020;23(7):2-4.
Moreira A, Hick R. COVID-19, the Great Recession and social policy: Is this time different? Soc Policy Adm [Internet]. 2021 [cited 2022 Nov 26];55(2):261-79. Available from: https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/spol.12679
Zimmermann KF, Karabulut G, Bilgin MH, Doker AC. Inter-country distancing, globalisation and the coronavirus pandemic. World Econ [Internet]. 2020 [cited 2022 Nov 26];43(6):1484-98. Available from: https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/twec.12969
The Economist. What the Delta variant did to South-East Asia. The Economist [Internet]. 2021 Sep 7 [cited 2021 Sep 12]; Available from: https://www.economist.com/asia/what-the-delta-variant-did-to-south-east-asia/21804360
Elengoe A. COVID-19 Outbreak in Malaysia. Osong Public Health Res Perspect [Internet]. 2020 Jun [cited 2021 Sep 12];11(3):93-100. Available from: http://ophrp.org/journal/view.php?number=559
Okada P, Buathong R, Phuygun S, Thanadachakul T, Parnmen S, Wongboot W, et al. Early transmission patterns of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) in travellers from Wuhan to Thailand, January 2020. Eurosurveillance. 2020 Feb 27;25.
CIDRAP LS| NE| CN|. CIDRAP. 2020 [cited 2021 Sep 12]. Philippines has first nCoV death outside of China as cases top 14,000. Available from: https://www.cidrap.umn.edu/news-perspective/2020/02/philippines-has-first-ncov-death-outside-china-cases-top-14000
El Zowalaty ME, Järhult JD. From SARS to COVID-19: A previously unknown SARS- related coronavirus (SARS-CoV-2) of pandemic potential infecting humans - Call for a One Health approach. One Health [Internet]. 2020 Jun 1 [cited 2022 Nov 26];9:100124. Available from: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2352771420300136
Kosack E, Stone M, Sanders K, Aravopoulou E, Biron D, Brodsky S, et al. Information management in the early stages of the COVID-19 pandemic. Bottom Line [Internet]. 2021 Jan 1 [cited 2022 Nov 26];34(1):20-44. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1108/BL-09-2020-0062
Ku MS, Huang LM, Chiu SYH, Wang WC, Jeng YC, Yen MY, et al. Continental transmission of emerging COVID-19 on the 38° north latitude. J Formos Med Assoc [Internet]. 2021 Jun 1 [cited 2022 Nov 26];120:S19-25. Available from: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0929664621001935
Olivia S, Gibson J, Nasrudin R. Indonesia in the Time of Covid-19. Bull Indones Econ Stud [Internet]. 2020 May 3 [cited 2021 Sep 8];56(2):143-74. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1080/00074918.2020.1798581
Saglietto A, D'Ascenzo F, Zoccai GB, Ferrari GMD. COVID-19 in Europe: the Italian lesson. The Lancet [Internet]. 2020 Apr 4 [cited 2021 Sep 15];395(10230):1110-1. Available from: https://www.thelancet.com/journals/lancet/article/PIIS0140-6736(20)30690-5/fulltext
Spiteri G, Fielding J, Diercke M, Campese C, Enouf V, Gaymard A, et al. First cases of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) in the WHO European Region, 24 January to 21 February 2020. Eurosurveillance [Internet]. 2020 Mar 5 [cited 2021 Sep 15];25(9):2000178. Available from: https://www.eurosurveillance.org/content/10.2807/1560-7917.ES.2020.25.9.2000178
Verelst F, Kuylen E, Beutels P. Indications for healthcare surge capacity in European countries facing an exponential increase in coronavirus disease (COVID-19) cases, March 2020. Eurosurveillance [Internet]. 2020 Apr 2 [cited 2021 Sep 15];25(13):2000323. Available from: https://www.eurosurveillance.org/content/10.2807/1560-7917.ES.2020.25.13.2000323
Acter T, Uddin N, Das J, Akhter A, Choudhury TR, Kim S. Evolution of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) as coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic: A global health emergency. Sci Total Environ [Internet]. 2020 Aug 15 [cited 2022 Nov 26];730:138996. Available from: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0048969720325134
ABVC. Risk Assessment for International Dissemination of COVID-19 to the ASEAN Region as of December 14, 2020 (2:00 PM GMT+8) ASEAN Biodiaspora Virtual Center (ABVC). ASEAN BioDiaspora Virtual Cent [Internet]. 2020; Available from: https://asean.org/wp-content/uploads/COVID-19_Report-of-ASEAN-BioDiaspora-Regional-Virtual-Center_14December2020.pdf
Amul GG, Ang M, Kraybill D, Ong SE, Yoong J. Responses to COVID-19 in Southeast Asia: Diverse Paths and Ongoing Challenges. Asian Econ Policy Rev [Internet]. 2022 [cited 2022 Nov 28];17(1):90-110. Available from: https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/aepr.12362
ABVC. COVID-19 Situational Report in the ASEAN+3 Region as of June 20, 2022 ASEAN BioDiaspora Virtual Center (ABVC). ASEAN BioDiaspora Virtual Cent [Internet]. 2022b; Available from: https://asean.org/wp-content/uploads/2022/06/COVID-19_Situational-Report_ASEAN-BioDiaspora-Regional-Virtual-Center_20Jun2022.pdf
ABVC. COVID-19 Situational Report in the ASEAN Region as of August 23, 2021 ASEAN Biodiaspora Virtual Center (ABVC). ASEAN BioDiaspora Virtual Cent [Internet]. 2021b; Available from: https://asean.org/wp-content/uploads/2021/08/COVID-19_Situational-Report_ASEAN-BioDiaspora-Regional-Virtual-Center_23Aug2021.pdf
Amy G. COVID-19 Is Surging in Southeast Asia | Time [Internet]. 2021 [cited 2022 Dec 28]. Available from: https://time.com/6046172/southeast-asia-covid/
CSIS. The Latest on Covid-19 in Southeast Asia: December 17, 2020 [Internet]. 2021 [cited 2021 Sep 12]. Available from: https://www.csis.org/blogs/latest-covid-19-southeast-asia/latest-covid-19-southeast-asia-december-17-2020
ABVC. COVID-19 Situational Report in the ASEAN Region as of February 21, 2022 ASEAN BioDiaspora Virtual Center (ABVC). ASEAN BioDiaspora Virtual Cent [Internet]. 2022a; Available from: https://asean.org/wp-content/uploads/2022/06/COVID-19_Situational-Report_ASEAN-BioDiaspora-Regional-Virtual-Center_20Jun2022.pdf
Mathieu E, Ritchie H, Rodés-Guirao L, Appel C, Giattino C, Hasell J, et al. Coronavirus Pandemic (COVID-19). Our World Data [Internet]. 2020 Mar 5 [cited 2023 Feb 2]; Available from: https://ourworldindata.org/covid-vaccination-policy
Sebastian S. Omicron Variant Threatens to Upend Southeast Asia's COVID-19 Recovery [Internet]. 2021 [cited 2022 Dec 28]. Available from: https://thediplomat.com/2021/12/omicron-variant-threatens-to-upend-southeast-asias-covid-19-recovery/
Moyo-Gwete T, Moore PL. Leveraging on past investment in understanding the immunology of COVID-19 - the South African experience. South Afr J Sci [Internet]. 2022 Jun [cited 2022 Dec 28];118(5-6):1-5. Available from: http://www.scielo.org.za/scielo.php?script=sci_abstract&pid=S0038-23532022000300005&lng=en&nrm=iso&tlng=en
Viana R, Moyo S, Amoako DG, Tegally H, Scheepers C, Althaus CL, et al. Rapid epidemic expansion of the SARS-CoV-2 Omicron variant in southern Africa. medRxiv [Internet]. 2021 Dec 21 [cited 2022 Dec 28];2021.12.19.21268028. Available from: https://www.medrxiv.org/content/10.1101/2021.12.19.21268028v1
The Diplomat. Omicron Variant Threatens to Upend Southeast Asia's COVID-19 Recovery [Internet]. 2021c [cited 2023 May 18]. Available from: https://thediplomat.com/2021/12/omicron-variant-threatens-to-upend-southeast-asias-covid-19-recovery/
ABVC A. COVID-19 Situational Report in the ASEAN Region as of November 29, 2021 ASEAN BioDiaspora Virtual Center (ABVC). ASEAN BioDiaspora Virtual Cent [Internet]. 2021c; Available from: https://asean.org/wp-content/uploads/2021/11/COVID-19_Situational-Report_ASEAN-BioDiaspora-Regional-Virtual-Center_29Nov2021.pdf
Chu DT, Vu Ngoc SM, Vu Thi H, Nguyen Thi YV, Ho TT, Hoang VT, et al. COVID-19 in Southeast Asia: current status and perspectives. Bioengineered. 2022;13(2):3797-809.
CSIS. The Latest on Southeast Asia: February 3, 2022 | The Latest on Southeast Asia | CSIS [Internet]. 2022 [cited 2023 May 18]. Available from: https://www.csis.org/blogs/latest-southeast-asia/latest-southeast-asia-february-3-2022
WHO. Weekly epidemiological update on COVID-19 - 10 August 2021 [Internet]. 2021a [cited 2021 Sep 7]. Available from: https://www.who.int/publications/m/item/weekly-epidemiological-update-on-covid-19---10-august-2021
Chen B, Zhao Y, Jin Z, He D, Li H. Twice evasions of Omicron variants explain the temporal patterns in six Asian and Oceanic countries. BMC Infect Dis [Internet]. 2023 Jan 13 [cited 2023 Apr 12];23:25. Available from: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC9839219/
Chookajorn T, Kochakarn T, Wilasang C, Kotanan N, Modchang C. Southeast Asia is an emerging hotspot for COVID-19. Nat Med [Internet]. 2021 Sep [cited 2021 Oct 3];27(9):1495-6. Available from: https://www.nature.com/articles/s41591-021-01471-x
Wilasang C, Sararat C, Jitsuk NC, Yolai N, Thammawijaya P, Auewarakul P, et al. Reduction in effective reproduction number of COVID-19 is higher in countries employing active case detection with prompt isolation. J Travel Med [Internet]. 2020 Aug 20 [cited 2021 Oct 3];27(5). Available from: https://doi.org/10.1093/jtm/taaa095
Tran TPT, Le TH, Nguyen TNP, Hoang VM. Rapid response to the COVID-19 pandemic: Vietnam government's experience and preliminary success. J Glob Health [Internet]. 2020 [cited 2021 Oct 3];10(2):020502. Available from: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7567433/
Sciortino R, Saini F. Towards a comprehensive narrative and response to COVID-19 in Southeast Asia. Soc Sci Humanit Open [Internet]. 2020 Jan 1 [cited 2021 Oct 3];2(1):100058. Available from: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2590291120300474
Joonlasak K, Batty EM, Kochakarn T, Panthan B, Kümpornsin K, Jiaranai P, et al. Genomic surveillance of SARS-CoV-2 in Thailand reveals mixed imported populations, a local lineage expansion and a virus with truncated ORF7a. Virus Res [Internet]. 2021 Jan 15 [cited 2021 Oct 3];292:198233. Available from: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0168170220311400
Mathieu E, Ritchie H, Ortiz-Ospina E, Roser M, Hasell J, Appel C, et al. A global database of COVID-19 vaccinations. Nat Hum Behav. 2021;5(7):947-53.
Abu-Raddad LJ, Chemaitelly H, Butt AA. Effectiveness of the BNT162b2 Covid-19 Vaccine against the B. 1.1. 7 and B. 1.351 Variants. N Engl J Med. 2021;
Chi WY, Li YD, Huang HC, Chan TEH, Chow SY, Su JH, et al. COVID-19 vaccine update: vaccine effectiveness, SARS-CoV-2 variants, boosters, adverse effects, and immune correlates of protection. J Biomed Sci [Internet]. 2022 Oct 15 [cited 2022 Dec 29];29(1):82. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1186/s12929-022-00853-8
IFRC. COVID-19: Southeast Asia battles world's highest deaths | IFRC [Internet]. 2021 [cited 2021 Oct 3]. Available from: https://www.ifrc.org/press-release/covid-19-southeast-asia-battles-worlds-highest-deaths?utm_campaign=covid-19-southeast-asia-battles-worlds-highest-deaths&utm_medium=rss&utm_source=rss
The Diplomat. Southeast Asia Nations Plan To 'Live With Virus' As Delta Surges [Internet]. 2021a [cited 2021 Oct 3]. Available from: https://thediplomat.com/2021/09/southeast-asia-nations-plan-to-live-with-virus-as-delta-surges/
Wai KS, Khine WYK, Lim JM, Neo PHM, Tan RKJ, Ong SE. Malaysia, Myanmar and Singapore: common threads, divergences, and lessons learned in responding to the COVID-19 pandemic. Round Table [Internet]. 2021 Jan 2 [cited 2022 Nov 26];110(1):84-98. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1080/00358533.2021.1875693
The Diplomat. As Delta Variant Rages in Southeast Asia, Health Workers Warned Not to Speak Out [Internet]. 2021b [cited 2021 Oct 3]. Available from: https://thediplomat.com/2021/07/as-delta-variant-rages-in-southeast-asia-health-workers-warned-not-to-speak-out/
The Star. The Star. 2022 [cited 2023 Apr 12]. Myanmar now the latest in South-East Asia to detect cases of Covid-19 Omicron BA.4, BA.5 subvariants. Available from: https://www.thestar.com.my/aseanplus/aseanplus-news/2022/07/12/myanmar-now-the-latest-in-south-east-asia-to-detect-cases-of-covid-19-omicron-ba4-ba5-subvariants
Charumilind S, Craven M, Lamb, J, Sabow, A, Singhal, S, Wilson M. When will the COVID-19 pandemic end? | McKinsey [Internet]. 2021 [cited 2021 Oct 3]. Available from: https://www.mckinsey.com/industries/healthcare-systems-and-services/our-insights/when-will-the-covid-19-pandemic-end
WHO. Tracking SARS-CoV-2 variants [Internet]. 2022b [cited 2022 Dec 29]. Available from: https://www.who.int/activities/tracking-SARS-CoV-2-variants
Mathieu E, Ritchie H, Rodés-Guirao L, Appel C, Giattino C, Hasell J, et al. Coronavirus pandemic (COVID-19). Our World Data. 2020;
Dezan S, Associates. Vietnam Briefing News. 2021 [cited 2021 Oct 11]. Vietnam Business Operations and the Coronavirus: Updates. Available from: https://www.vietnam-briefing.com/news/vietnam-business-operations-and-the-coronavirus-updates.html/
McCarthy J. Malaysia's Recent Surge In COVID Infections Leads To A New Lockdown And New Worries. NPR [Internet]. 2021 Jun 4 [cited 2021 Oct 11]; Available from: https://www.npr.org/2021/06/04/1002843927/malaysias-recent-surge-in-infections-leads-to-a-new-lockdown-and-new-worries
Djalante R, Lassa J, Setiamarga D, Sudjatma A, Indrawan M, Haryanto B, et al. Review and analysis of current responses to COVID-19 in Indonesia: Period of January to March 2020. Prog Disaster Sci [Internet]. 2020d [cited 2023 May 24];6:100091. Available from: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2590061720300284
ABVC. Risk Assessment for International Dissemination of COVID-19 to the ASEAN Region as of March 1, 2021 (2:00 PM GMT+8) ASEAN Biodiaspora Virtual Center (ABVC). ASEAN BioDiaspora Virtual Cent [Internet]. 2021a; Available from: https://asean.org/wp-content/uploads/COVID-19_Report-of-ASEAN-BioDiaspora-Regional-Virtual-Center_1February2021.pdf
Boin A, Hart P, Kuipers S. The Crisis Approach. In 2017. p. 23-38.
Malik P, Lenka U, Sahoo DK. Proposing micro-macro HRM strategies to overcome challenges of workforce diversity and deviance in ASEAN. J Manag Dev [Internet]. 2018 Jan 1 [cited 2024 Sep 9];37(1):6-26. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1108/JMD-11-2016-0264
Rampal L. Battling COVID-19 pandemic waves in six South-East Asian countries: A real-time consensus review. 2020;75(6).
Roziqin A, Mas'udi SYF, Sihidi IT. An analysis of Indonesian government policies against COVID-19. Public Adm Policy [Internet]. 2021 Jan 1 [cited 2023 Jul 10];24(1):92-107. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1108/PAP-08-2020-0039
Canelas C, Niño-Zarazúa M. Social protection and the informal economy: What do we know? 2022;
Stephen S, Issac A, Jacob J, Vijay V, Radhakrishnan RV, Krishnan N. COVID-19: weighing the endeavors of nations, with time to event analysis. Osong Public Health Res Perspect. 2020;11(4):149.
Rasul G, Nepal AK, Hussain A, Maharjan A, Joshi S, Lama A, et al. Socio-Economic Implications of COVID-19 Pandemic in South Asia: Emerging Risks and Growing Challenges. Front Sociol [Internet]. 2021 Feb 24 [cited 2024 Sep 8];6. Available from: https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/sociology/articles/10.3389/fsoc.2021.629693/full
Ullah AA, Chattoraj D. Covid-19 Pandemic And The Migrant Population In Southeast Asia: Vaccine, Diplomacy And Disparity. World Scientific; 2022. 364 p.
Li J, Lim B, Pazim KH, Furuoka F. COVID-19 pandemic's impact on the labour market in ASEAN countries. AEI Insights [Internet]. 2021 Jan 1 [cited 2024 Sep 8];7(1):59-76. Available from: https://mojc.um.edu.my/index.php/AEIINSIGHTS/article/view/31633
Sawada Y, Sumulong L. Macroeconomic Impact of COVID-19 in Developing Asia [Internet]. Rochester, NY; 2021 [cited 2024 Sep 8]. Available from: https://papers.ssrn.com/abstract=3912360
Davila F, Bourke RM, McWilliam A, Crimp S, Robins L, van Wensveen M, et al. COVID-19 and food systems in Pacific Island Countries, Papua New Guinea, and Timor-Leste: Opportunities for actions towards the sustainable development goals. Agric Syst [Internet]. 2021 Jun 1 [cited 2024 Sep 8];191:103137. Available from: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0308521X21000901
Sciortino R. Who Cares?: COVID-19 Social Protection Responses in Southeast Asia. Silkworm Books; 2023. 376 p.
Djalante R, Nurhidayah L, Van Minh H, Phuong NTN, Mahendradhata Y, Trias A, et al. COVID-19 and ASEAN responses: Comparative policy analysis. Prog Disaster Sci [Internet]. 2020 Dec 1 [cited 2022 Sep 5];8:100129. Available from: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2590061720300661
Lwin S, San Wai K, Win N. Capabilities, Coupvid and Cataclysm: Myanmar's Responses to Covid-19'. Covid-19 in Southeast Asia. 2020;2022.
Medina AF. ASEAN Business News. 2020 [cited 2023 Jan 23]. Indonesia Issues Second Stimulus Package to Dampen COVID-19 Impact. Available from: https://www.aseanbriefing.com/news/indonesia-issues-second-stimulus-package-dampen-covid-19-impact/
Sothorn DK, Christopher J. Economic Impacts of COVID-19 in Southeast Asia.
Sunitte Y, Randy TK, Anuchit N. Thailand Plans $30.5 Billion Borrowing for Latest Stimulus. Bloomberg.com [Internet]. 2020 Apr 7 [cited 2022 Dec 22]; Available from: https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2020-04-07/thailand-plans-30-5-billion-in-new-borrowing-for-major-stimulus
VDB/Loi. COVID-19: The Lao PDR Government Announces New Economic Policy Measures - VDB | LOI [Internet]. 2020 [cited 2022 Dec 22]. Available from: https://www.vdb-loi.com/laos_publication/covid-19-the-lao-pdr-government-announces-new-economic-policy-measures/
Roy S, Saha M, Dhar B, Pandit S, Nasrin R. Geospatial analysis of COVID-19 lockdown effects on air quality in the South and Southeast Asian region. Sci Total Environ [Internet]. 2021 Feb 20 [cited 2024 Sep 8];756:144009. Available from: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0048969720375409
Schwanen T. Enhancing the resilience of urban transport in Asian cities after COVID-19?: synthesis of academic study results and general recommendations. 2021 [cited 2024 Sep 8]; Available from: https://repository.unescap.org/handle/20.500.12870/4550
Shermin N, Rahaman SN. Assessment of sanitation service gap in urban slums for tackling COVID-19. J Urban Manag [Internet]. 2021 Sep 1 [cited 2024 Sep 8];10(3):230-41. Available from: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2226585621000649
von Seidlein L, Alabaster G, Deen J, Knudsen J. Crowding has consequences: Prevention and management of COVID-19 in informal urban settlements. Build Environ [Internet]. 2021 Jan 15 [cited 2024 Sep 8];188:107472. Available from: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0360132320308398
Magno FA, Teehankee JC. Pandemic Politics in the Philippines: An Introduction from the Special Issue Editors. Philipp Polit Sci J [Internet]. 2022 Sep 28 [cited 2023 Jul 11];43(2):107-22. Available from: https://brill.com/view/journals/ppsj/43/2/article-p107_1.xml
The Jakarta Post. The Jakarta Post. 2020 [cited 2023 Jan 23]. No lockdown for Indonesia, Jokowi insists as COVID-19 cases continue to rise. Available from: https://www.thejakartapost.com/news/2020/03/24/no-lockdown-for-indonesia-jokowi-insists-as-covid-19-cases-continue-to-rise.html
Asis RP, Maningat CL. The "ASEAN Way" in Migration Governance. In: Crawley H, Teye JK, editors. The Palgrave Handbook of South-South Migration and Inequality [Internet]. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2024 [cited 2024 Sep 9]. p. 679-98. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-39814-8_31
Pung R, Chiew CJ, Young BE, Chin S, Chen MIC, Clapham HE, et al. Investigation of three clusters of COVID-19 in Singapore: implications for surveillance and response measures. The Lancet [Internet]. 2020 Mar 28 [cited 2024 Sep 9];395(10229):1039-46. Available from: https://www.thelancet.com/journals/lancet/article/PIIS0140-6736(20)30528-6/fulltext?mod=article_inline
Today. TODAY. 2020 [cited 2022 Dec 29]. Covid-19 vaccination in Singapore to begin on Dec 30, starting with healthcare workers. Available from: https://www.todayonline.com/singapore/covid-19-vaccination-singapore-begin-dec-30-starting-healthcare-workers
Edna, Victoria. Indonesia Starts Mass COVID Vaccinations Over Vast Territory [Internet]. 2021 [cited 2022 Dec 29]. Available from: https://thediplomat.com/2021/01/indonesia-starts-mass-covid-vaccinations-over-vast-territory/
GAVI. COVAX roll-out - Timor Leste [Internet]. 2021 [cited 2022 Dec 29]. Available from: https://www.gavi.org/covax-vaccine-roll-out/timor-leste
Luong D. Nikkei Asia. 2021 [cited 2022 Dec 29]. Vietnam proves immune to China's vaccine diplomacy campaign. Available from: https://asia.nikkei.com/Opinion/Vietnam-proves-immune-to-China-s-vaccine-diplomacy-campaign
Tung NC. US-China COVID-19 vaccine diplomacy competition in Vietnam: where vaccines go, influence may follow. Aust J Int Aff [Internet]. 2022 Nov 2 [cited 2024 Sep 11];76(6):653-71. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1080/10357718.2022.2077302
CGTN. China's Vaccine Map: More countries using Chinese vaccines [Internet]. 2021 [cited 2022 Dec 29]. Available from: https://news.cgtn.com/news/2021-03-22/China-s-Vaccine-Map-More-countries-using-Chinese-vaccines-YOn46O9ncA/index.html
Lee JD. The Atlantic. 2021 [cited 2022 Dec 29]. The Utter Familiarity of Even the Strangest Vaccine Conspiracy Theories. Available from: https://www.theatlantic.com/ideas/archive/2021/01/familiarity-strangest-vaccine-conspiracy-theories/617572/
Andreo C. Nearly Half in Philippines Don't Want Covid Vaccine, Survey Says. Bloomberg.com [Internet]. 2021 Jan 7 [cited 2022 Dec 29]; Available from: https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2021-01-07/nearly-half-in-philippines-don-t-want-covid-vaccine-survey-says
Rodzi NHR. Some Malaysians uncertain of Covid-19 vaccine: Survey. The Straits Times [Internet]. 2021 Jan 3 [cited 2022 Dec 29]; Available from: https://www.straitstimes.com/asia/se-asia/some-malaysians-have-reservations-about-taking-covid-19-vaccine-survey?close=true
Downloads
Published
How to Cite
Issue
Section
License
Copyright (c) 2024 Basiru Aliyu , Hui Yee Chee, Mui Yun Wong, Zamberi Bin Sekawi
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
Authors who publish with this journal agree to the following terms:
- Authors retain copyright and grant the journal right of first publication with the work simultaneously licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0) that allows others to share the work with an acknowledgement of the work's authorship and initial publication in this journal.
- Authors are able to enter into separate, additional contractual arrangements for the non-exclusive distribution of the journal's published version of the work (e.g., post it to an institutional repository or publish it in a book), with an acknowledgement of its initial publication in this journal.
- Authors are permitted and encouraged to post their work online (e.g., in institutional repositories or on their website) prior to and during the submission process, as it can lead to productive exchanges, as well as earlier and greater citation of published work (See The Effect of Open Access).
